Botany of Desire Excerpt

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Flowers manipulate themselves to be desired as a part of co-evolution in order to advance its own interest. In co-evolution, two parties act on each other to advance their individual interest and end up trading favors. The relationship between a honey bee and a flower is an example of co-evolution. Both parties benefit from each other, the bee gets food and the flower is able to reproduce. The flowers create a scent or an aesthetic appearance, exploiting the honey bees desire.

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Similarly, agriculture is an example of co-evolution between humans and "domesticated" agricultural products. Just like how the apple blossom's form and scent has been selected by bees, potatoes have been selected over several generations by humans for mass production. Apples entice us with its sweetness, tulip with its beauty, cannabis with its intoxication, and potato with its taste.

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Plants make themselves desired to animals in order to be able to pass on its genes to the next generation. The plants able to do this the most effectively will multiply. Our semiconscious awareness to our choices of plants is a part of evolution. Humans regard plants and agriculture by desire while they act on humans, getting them to aid their interest in reproducing.

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This also reflects Charles Darwin's theory of survival of the fittest. The plants manipulate themselves to fit our desires in order to make itself dominant in human agriculture, multiplying its population exponentially greater than wild plants that have not learned to do so yet. Darwin uses the term artificial selection to define the process in which domesticated species come into the world. Human desire plays a role in what nature determines is the "fittest" thereby leading to emergence of new forms of life, evolution.

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Predator/Prey Lab Graph

The purpose of this lab is investigate how populations are affected by predator-prey relationships over several generation. The following data shows the populations of wolves relative to the population of rabbits over 20 generations. As the population of the wolves decreased, the population of the rabbits increased and vice versa. The trend in the graph developed from the data we gathered showed that as the number of predators increased, the number of prey decreased. Over the generations after that, the number of predators would decline due to lack of prey. As a result, the number of prey would increase because of the lack of predators. This trend of predator and prey population would oscillate relative to each other.

Biome Disaster: Toxic Waste Spill

A waste spill in the Boreal Forest would devastate and tip the balance of life dependent on the forest.

A few years ago, a toxic waste spill in northern Alberta killed off 42 hectares of the boreal forest. The amount of oil that suffocated the environment was enough to cover 50 football fields. Every tree and plant in contact with the waste died. Waterfowls may have been killed off as well, the spill being in a wetlands region of the Alberta boreal forest. The toxic waste contained crude oil, hydrocarbons, high levels of salt, sulfuric compounds, metals, naturally occurring radioactive materials, chemical solvents, and additives used by the oil industry.

Waste spills in the boreal forest destroy entire ecosystems, produce lake-sized chemical waste, releases toxins, and emits a significant amount of global warming pollutants (more than conventional oil).

Alberta's boreal forest is critical to the survival of the Canadian Lynx. The toxic spill would push the lynx out of its environment, endangering its existence.

Fish and Wildlife conservation officers killed 145 black bears after they were habituated to garbage in the oilsands region.

Canadian officials are also poisoning wolves to make way for the caribou habitat that is threatened by tar sand fuel extraction.

The tar sand oil operations create toxic dumps filled with excess chemicals and oils calling "tailings pond." To birds, they look like a safe place to land. Unfortunately , hundred of birds met their demise with a slow painful death from these sludge pits.

Moose meat tested high in arsenic and carcinogens created by oil mining, endangering the health of anyone or any predator who depends on moose for survival.

Woodland caribou are being driven to the brink of extinction because their habitat is being threatened.

Oil companies require a large amount of water, disrupting the natural cycle of of rivers and surrounding watersheds, endangering many species of fish.

Toxic waste spills devastate every part of the boreal forest because the spills destroy entire ecosystems, affecting every living organism.

SOURCES

National Wildlife Federation

Yahoo News

The Boreal Forest (The Taiga)

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The Boreal Forest is characterized as a biome consisting exclusively of evergreen and coniferous trees. It encircles the earth in far-northern latitudes just below the arctic tundra and just above the deciduous forests and grasslands of the temperate zone. It is the largest terrestrial ecosystem (surpassing the Amazon Rainforest) and remains largely undeveloped. Many people also visit the Boreal Forest just to witness the dancing Aurora Borealis (Northern Lights) in the sky.

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LOCATION

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ABIOTIC FEATURES

Soil/Minerals.

One might expect the soil conditions in a forest to be fertile and booming with life. However, the the soil in the boreal forest is frozen about 5 to 7 months of the year. Further more, the soil is highly acidic due to fallen conifer needles that accumulate on the forest floor. This, in turn, also provides poor nutrition to vegetation, limiting the types of vegetation that are able to prosper in these soil conditions. When the soil isn't frozen, it's swampy and marshy because the snow melts in late spring followed by heavy rainfall in the short summers that keep the water from being able to completely evaporate.

Precipitation

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The boreal forest receives about 8 to 79 inches of precipitation a year, mostly in the form of snow and in the form of rain in the summer.

Air                                                                      http://www.borealbirds.org/images/carbon/piechart-carbon.png

The boreal forest does a fantastic job of purifying the air and regulating the regional climate. The boreal forest also enjoys the higher concentrations of carbon dioxide in our atmosphere due to our consumption of fossil fuels. It is one of the largest carbon reservoirs in the world. It has been enabling growth rates not seen in human history according to a new study. Geochemist Heather Graven of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography and her colleagues documents a dramatic spike in the flow of carbon dioxide into the forest. She states "Boreal Forests are more active than 50 years ago." Her and her colleagues also discovered that the ecosystems are changing (vegetation structures, compositions, photsynthesis timing, leaves, roots, wood) in response to the increasing levels of CO2.

Natural Occurings

Forest fires are extremely common and used to clean up the biome. This also includes the imfamous and beautiful northern lights.

Temperature

The boreal forest is prone to extremely long, harsh winters, and short, mild summers. The cold air blowing down from the arctic creates bitter winters, lasting more that half of the year. Temperatures in the winter oscillates wildly from a high of 30 to a low of -65 degrees Fahrenheit. In the summer, temperatures range from a high of 70 to a low of 30 degrees Fahrenheit. Temperatures usually remain below freezing for more that half the year. The average overall yearly temperature is 32 degrees Fahrenheit (freezing point).

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Sunlight

Because the boreat forest is located in the northern regions, it receives up to 20 hours of sunlight per day during the summer. While in the wintertime, the forest only receives a few short hours. The long days and mild temperatures during the summer abets and welcomes a rapid burst of plant growth. Unfortunately, the summer growing season only lasts for 3 months before the temperature begins to drop.


BIOTIC FEATURES

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Producers

The producers include the evergreen trees, wild grass, wild flowers, deciduous shrubs, ferns, mosses, and lichens

Consumers

Carnivores: Felids (cats) such as the bobcat, lynx, and siberian tiger. Canids (dogs) such as wolves.\

Herbivores: Deer (elk), moose, arboreal (tree-living), porcupine, snow hare, rodents.

Decomposers

Decomposers: Soil bacteria, nematodes, worms, fungi, protozoans

FOOD WEB

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HUMAN INFLUENCE/ THREATS

Exploration and development of oil and gas reserves are the greatest threats to the boreal forest. With increased instability in the Middle East, high demand for fuel, efficient technology, people are pushing into the abundant amounts of petroleum reserves that lie in the forests. This is troublesome for the slowly growing coniferous trees.

Global warming poses a treat to this biome as well. As the planet warms the southern parts of the boreal forest, it becomes warm enough for deciduous trees to push north and out-compete the coniferous trees. The warmer weather has also fostered an increase in tree-damaging insects.

The logging industry (mostly in Siberia) also possesses a major threat to this biome.  Clearcutting has been a major concern as well. 90% of the products taken from the lumber of the boreal forest is exported. The forest is extremely slow paced in recovery. Large areas of the boreal forest have also been flooded for a  part of the hydroelectric project. Only 8% of the boreal forest is protected under law in Canada.

EVOLUTIONARY FEATURES                    http://www.world-builders.org/lessons/less/biomes/conifers/conif-for/tallconf.gif

Coniferous trees are tall and narrow so that the snow is able to easily slide of the branches without breaking the branches from the weight. The trees grow close together in order to protect one another from the wind. Their tough needles resist frost and wind damage while conserving water. The trees also sport thick barks in order to protect itself from the damage of the summer fires. These trees use wind for pollination, taking advantage of their close set proximity. During the spring, the air is golden with pollen.

Many birds migrate as the winter comes, while other animals hibernate. Deer travel long distances in search of food. The snowshoe hare has evolved large paws for running over the snow, white fur (camouflage) for the winter, and brown fur (camouflage) for the summer.  Other animals bury beneath the snow to better insulate themselves from the winter cold. Because of the harsh environment of the boreal forest, there are fewer species of plants and animals. (amphibians and reptiles for example).

The long days during the brief summers allow an exponential amount of photosynthesis and plant growth. This also invites a burst in insect activity, which many birds that migrate to the forest during the summer, take advantage of. Since there are a fewer number of species that tolerate the climate of the forest, there is also reduced competition for the birds to forage for food and raise their young.

The acidic conditions caused by fallen conifer needles and poor nutrition on the forest floor spikes the competition in plants. In order to combat the small number of resources, some plants evolved to be carnivorous, use parasitism, and use mycorrhizae. 

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Thank You! 

SOURCES

Scientific American

Bright Hub

Marietta Education

Wikipedia

Animal Behavior in Armadillidiidae (Pillbug) in Response to Environmental Changes

ABSTRACT: 

In this lab, animal behavior relative to the organism's environment is being observed. In this experiment, Armadillidiidaes (pillbugs) are observed in order to find out their preferences on types of environment. Humidity and acidity/taste are used as two of the factors in this experiment. The results showed that the pillbugs tend to prefer a more moist environment to a dry one. It also revealed that pillbugs highly prefer environments without acidity (basic)

INTRODUCTION:  

Behavior is the way in which one acts or conducts oneself in a set environment. Proximate and ultimate causes also apply to animal behavior. Proximate cause is the immediate trigger for a certain behavior in an animal. Ultimate cause is the evolutionary purpose or reason the animal behaves the way it does. For example in bird song, "why is the bird singing?" would be a proximate question for that certain behavior. An ultimate question for the same behavior would be "what is the evolutionary purpose for a bird to sing?"

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In ethology, a fixed action pattern is the instinctive behavior that is unchangeable and invariant. These behaviors are produced by a neural network called the innate releasing mechanism in response to an external sensory stimulus called the sign stimulus. This type of behavior is "hard-wired" and instinctive in the animal. 

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Imprinting is a type of psychological behavior best defined as any sort of phase-sensitive learning, which is a type of learning that occurs at a specific age or specific stage in life). It develops rapidly and is completely independent from behavior. Imprinting is described as when an animal or person learns specific behaviors or characteristics of a certain stimulus. A proximate cause for imprinting in young geese is the instinctive and innate response to imprint during the critical period (a time early in animal's life when it forms attachments and develops its own identity) in order to recognize its parent and its own species. The ultimate cause of filial imprinting in young geese is the need to acquire behavioral characteristics from its parent in order to survive and ensure that it will have the best opportunity of minimizing threats of survival (lack of food, predators, etc). 

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Taxis is a specific and directed motion in response to a stimulus. Taxis involves motion in the direction of a stimulus (positive taxis) or away from a stimulus (negative taxis). An example of taxis is when a male moth flies specifically in the direction of a female moth in response to her pheremones so that it can find a potential mate. Kinesis is a random and undirected response to a stimulus. An example of kenesis is when one turns on the lights and cockroaches scatter in any direction. Instead of going towards or away from a stimulus (light), it just causes them to go in whichever random direction. 

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A famous example of classical conditioning is Ivan Pavlov's experiment with dogs. Pavlov noticed that dogs began to salivate in response to a sound that has been paired with the presentation or symbol of food. He soon realized that this was a learned response. Classical conditioning involves a neutral stimulus (sound of a bag of dog treats rattling) with an unconditioned stimulus (taste of dog treats). The unconditioned stimulus then naturally triggers an unconditioned response, salivating. It is a type of learned behavior when a conditioned stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus. Operant conditioning, on the other hand, focuses on using reinforcement and punishment to increase or decrease a certain behavior. An example of this is when an owner is teaching a dog how to fetch. If the dog chases after and retrieves the ball, the dog is rewards with a treat as a reward; If the dog fails to retrieve the ball, the owner does not reward it. Over time, the dog learns to associate which of his behaviors receives the desired reward. 

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With this in mind, we can have a better understanding in our observation of the pillbugs' behavioral responses to environmental changes such as moisture and acidity. 

HYPOTHESIS:  

If an environment is more moist, then pillbugs will prefer it because they are found mostly under rocks and in moist soil. If the environment is less acidic, then the pillbugs will prefer it because the soil they live in lack acidity and is more basic. In order to test this hypothesis, it is necessary for there to be choice chambers where one does not contain any moisture (control) and one that does. For the acidity/basic test, it is necessary for there to be choice chambers where one does not contain any vinegar (control) and one that does. That way results can be compared to the tested factors. 

 MATERIALS: 

1. 10 Pillbugs
2. Container
3. Cotton
4. Bedding material (for choice chamber)
5. Choice chamber
6. Choice chamber cover
7. Timer

 PROCEDURE:

1. Take a container along with some cotton.
2. Go outside in damp areas (soil, under rocks, etc) to look for 10 pillbugs
3. Place captured pillbugs in the containers and plug the container with cotton so the pillbugs don't escape. 
4. Place thin bedding material in each of the choice chambers.
5. Set  the pillbugs into the choice chambers carefully. 
6. Choose two variables to be tested (for example: moisture and taste). 
7. Observe the first variable by prepping the chambers.
8. Cover the chambers.
9. Check every 30 seconds and record data. 

.

RESULTS: 

CONCLUSION: 

The data collected as a result from this experiment fails to reject my hypothesis. Our data showed that pillbugs preferred moisture (independent variable) to dryness (control). Our data also showed that the pillbugs highly preferred an environment without acidity (vinegar/independent variable) as most of them migrated to the side of the choice chamber without the vinegar (control). The constants in this lab were the temperature, the number of bugs, and the same size of the choice chambers. Potential sources of error may include the pillbugs crawling under the bedding, unable to switch to a desired side, and the death of a pillbug. Both of these errors occurred in our experiment, but our data that we collected was prevailing enough to slighly overlook these errors. 

CITATION: 

 "Proximate and Ultimate Causation" Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Last modified 14 March, 2014. Accessed 12 April, 2014. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proximate_and_ultimate_causation

"Fixed Action Pattern." Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Last modified 2 April, 2014. Accessed 12 April, 2014. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed_action_pattern

"Imprinting." Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Last modified 21 March, 2014. Accessed 12 April, 2014. 

"My Life as a Turkey: Who's Your Mama? The Science of Imprinting." PBS: Nature. Accessed 12 April, 2014. http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/episodes/my-life-as-a-turkey/whos-your-mama-the-science-of-imprinting/7367/

Gleason, Dan. "Imprinting in Birds." Wordpress: Dan Gleason's Blog, Bird Information. Last Modified 2010. Accessed 12 April, 2014. http://dangleason.wordpress.com/avian-biology/172-2/

"Movement: Taxis and Kinesis." Sparknotes: Animal Behavior: Orientation and Navigation. Accessed 12 April, 2014. http://www.sparknotes.com/biology/animalbehavior/orientationandnavigation/section1.html

Cherry, Kendra. "Classical VS Operant Conditioning." About.com: Psychology. Accessed 12 April, 2014. http://psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsychology/a/classical-vs-operant-conditioning.htm